detail of Darius III at battle of Issus 
from mosaic found in house of the Faun at Pompeii
copied from classic Greek fresco by Philoxenos of Eretria (ca. 310
BCE);
mosaic now on exhibit at National Archaeological Museum in Naples

Darius III [abt 380 - 330 BCE]

The last of the Achaemenid dynasty to rule the Persian empire was a weak leader whose indecisiveness & personal cowardice left him unable to inspire Persian resistance to the onslaught of the armies of Alexander.   Allegedly a grandson of a daughter of Artaxerxes II  (d. 358 BCE) who had served as satrap (provincial governor) of Armenia, he was not prepared to rule Persia's complex sprawling realm.  Yet he was thrust into that role by the death of Artaxerxes III (338 BCE) & the murder of his heir Artaxerxes IV (336 BCE). Originally called Artashata, he adopted the name Darius when he was enthroned by his predecessor's assassin, the grand vizier Bagoas. 

No sooner had Darius assumed the role of king than he faced a Greek invasion of Asia Minor, aborted only because its leader Philip II of Macedon was murdered. But this proved to be just a temporary reprieve, since less than two years later Philip's son, Alexander, invaded with an even larger force & a determination not just to free Greeks under Persian rule but to end Persian dominion everywhere.

Instead of personally leading a Persian counterattack, Darius left it to his satraps to oppose Alexander. Relying heavily on local Greek mercenaries, the Persians were routed near Troy in the battle of Granicus (May 334 BCE), after which the Greco-Macedonian forces marched across the whole of Asia Minor, taking major cities from Miletus to Tarsus with little trouble.   A year & a half passed before Darius arrived at the bay of Issus on the Syrian coast with a Persian army more than twice the size of Alexander's. When Alexander led an assault directed at Darius, who had positioned himself at the center of the Persian line, the Persian monarch panicked and fled the battlefield, leaving his own family to fend for themselves. Without their leader, the disorganized Persian army scattered & were slaughtered by Alexander's cavalry. Alexander himself took Darius' mother, wife & daughters captive, but treated them as honored royal hostages. After returning to Babylon, Darius tried in vain to negotiate their release yet made no further military effort to stop Alexander's conquest of the Levant & Egypt.

It was only after Alexander crossed the Tigris in northern Mesopotamia that Darius ventured to reengage him in battle, again with a much larger army. On 1 Oct 331 BCE they met at Gaugamela (east of modern Mosul, Iraq).  Again Alexander attacked the center of the Persian line & again Darius fled the battlefield. While Alexander moved south to occupy Babylon, Darius fled east into Bactria where he was murdered by his own satrap. When his body was brought to Alexander, the victor ordered a royal burial for his opponent. Six years later he married Darius' oldest daughter to bolster recognition of his claim to the throne of the last Persian monarch.

References: Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander 2.6-12, 14; 3.7-16, 19-22; 4.20; 7.4.
                  Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 17.31-39, 53-61, 64-65, 73-74.
                  Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Alexander 18-22, 29-33, 42-43.
                  Justin, Epitome of Trogus' Philippic History 10.3 11.6-15.

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